Psychology of Religion and Culture

After a brief introduction to psychology of religion as a scientific discipline, this article reviews psychological theories that propose explanations of religion as an individual and social reality, and provides information from recent empirical literature that, at least partially, confirms these theories. The theoretical and empirical evidence presented here encompasses a variety of psychological fields examining cognitive, emotional, relational, social, clinical, developmental, and personality dimensions of religion. Religion is thus seen as a set of beliefs, emotions, rituals, moral rules, and communal aspects. The article emphasizes, but is not limited to, a functionalist approach to religion; both a “defensive” and a “prospective” creative conception of religion are examined. The main arguments are that religion 1) is a specific quest for meaning but is not defined by it; 2) contributes to the strengthening of self-control; 3) is animated by the aspiration for unity, integration, and harmony; 4) provides personal empowerment and social support as well as clues for construction of identity as a continuity of belonging; and 5) reinforces altruistic tendencies although it is not the source of morality. For every argument, positive (e.g. optimism, self-control, peace of mind, selfesteem, prosocial concerns) as well negative (e.g. fundamentalism, obsession, fixation on the maternal world, conservatism, out-group prejudice), consequences of religion for personal and social well-being are depicted. Special attention is paid to relations between religion and culture: consideration of religion as culture or sub-culture; regulation of the equilibrium between absorption by, and rejection of, culture; cultural-religious differences versus cross-cultural invariants in psychological aspects of religion. Finally, new challenges for the psychological understanding of religion (and modern spirituality), due to the combination of factors such as secularization, individualization, and globalization, are examined.